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# Pramāṇa (Indo-Tibetan): ''Anumāna'' (T. … # Pramāṇa (Indo-Tibetan): ''Anumāna'' (T. ''rjes dpag'' or ''rjes su dpag pa''), or inferential cognition, is a cornerstone of Buddhist epistemology, particularly as systematized by ''Dignāga'' and ''Dharmakīrti''. It is one of only two accepted ''pramāṇas'' (valid cognitions), alongside direct perception (''pratyakṣa''). This twofold division corresponds to two types of objects: unique particulars (''svalakṣaṇa''objects: unique particulars (''svalakṣaṇa'' +
T. ''bsam pa las byung ba'i shes rab'') la … T. ''bsam pa las byung ba'i shes rab'') largely relies on inferential reasoning based on teachings and logical arguments before it matures into direct realization through meditation (''bhāvanāmayī prajñā''). The great ''Mādhyamika'' masters like ''Nāgārjuna'' and ''Candrakīrti'' employed sophisticated logical arguments, a form of ''parārthānumāna'', to guide others towards understanding emptiness. Inferential valid cognition (''anumānapramāṇa''ential valid cognition (''anumānapramāṇa'' +
T. ''dam bca' ''), reason (''hetu''), and example (''dṛṣṭānta'' +
T. ''dpe''). Unlike the five-membered syll … T. ''dpe''). Unlike the five-membered syllogism of the ''Nyāya'' school, the Buddhist form omits the explicit statement of the conclusion.# Pramāṇa (Indo-Tibetan) — Types Based on the Logical Reason:#* ''Kāryahetu'' / ''Kāryaliṅga'' (T. '' 'bras bu'i rtags''): An inference based on an effect as the reason (e.g., inferring fire from smoke, since smoke is the effect of fire).#* ''Svabhāvahetu'' / ''Svabhāvaliṅga'' (T. ''rang bzhin gyi rtags''): An inference based on essential nature or identity as the reason (e.g., inferring "tree" from "oak tree" because being an oak is pervaded by being a treee being an oak is pervaded by being a tree +
T. ''lkog gyur'') based on a logical mark (''liṅga''/''hetu'' +
T. ''rang mtshan''), which are known through direct perception, and universals or generally characterized phenomena (''sāmānyalakṣaṇa'' +
T. ''rjes dpag tshad ma'') plays a crucial … T. ''rjes dpag tshad ma'') plays a crucial role in understanding subtle impermanence, emptiness, the karmic process, and other key Buddhist tenets not directly perceivable through ordinary sense faculties.# Vajrayāna (Indo-Tibetan): In Vajrayāna, while the ''pramāṇa'' framework is maintained for philosophical analysis and debate, the emphasis shifts toward direct experience and yogic perception. Training in valid cognition (''tshad ma'') remains foundational in monastic education, as it develops the analytical capacity necessary for understanding and realizing the tantric view. The distinction between conceptual inference and non-conceptual direct awareness becomes particularly important in the context of recognizing the nature of mind.# Theravāda/Pāli Tradition Context: In the Pāli tradition, while the systematic ''pramāṇa'' theory developed by ''Dignāga'' and ''Dharmakīrti'' is not emphasized, the term ''anumāna'' appears in the sense of reasoning or inference. The Pāli texts acknowledge the importance of reasoning (''takka'', ''vitakka'') as part of the investigation of ''dhamma'', though direct insight (''vipassanā'') and personal realization are prioritized over mere logical deduction.# Indian Philosophical Context: Buddhist ''anumāna'' theory developed in dialogue with the Hindu ''Nyāya'' school's logic. While ''Nyāya'' accepts a five-membered syllogism and additional ''pramāṇas'' such as verbal testimony (''śabda''), comparison (''upamāna''), and postulation (''arthāpatti''), the Buddhist ''pramāṇa'' tradition accepts only perception and inference as independent sources of valid knowledge, with scripture being validated through inference regarding the reliability of the Buddha as a teacher (''pramāṇabhūta'').he Buddha as a teacher (''pramāṇabhūta''). +
T. ''rtags'') possessing three essential characteristics (''trairūpya'' +
T. ''rtog pa''), which involves the applic … T. ''rtog pa''), which involves the application of mental images and universal concepts to particular objects. The process of analyzing ''dharmas'' to move beyond doubt aligns with the function of inference.# Mahāyāna (Indo-Tibetan): In Mahāyāna, particularly ''Madhyamaka'', inference is extensively used to deconstruct mistaken views about inherent existence and to establish understanding of emptiness (''śūnyatā''). The wisdom derived from contemplation (''cintāmayī prajñā''d from contemplation (''cintāmayī prajñā'' +
T. ''sbyor ba'i ngag'') to generate understanding in another person. ''Dharmakīrti'' and his Indo-Tibetan successors prescribed a two-membered form involving a thesis (''pratijñā'' +
T. ''shes rab'') that analyzes phenomena provides the basis for inferential reasoning. Inference operates through conceptual cognition (''kalpanā'' +
T. ''spyi mtshan''), which are understood through inference. Inference is defined as a conceptual, non-erroneous cognition that ascertains a hidden phenomenon (''parokṣa'' +
T. ''tshul gsum''): #* ''Pakṣadharmatā'' ( … T. ''tshul gsum''):#* ''Pakṣadharmatā'' (T. ''phyogs chos''): The presence of the mark in the subject (e.g., smoke exists on the mountain pass).#* ''Anvayavyāpti'' (T. ''rjes khyab'' or ''rjes su 'gro ba'i khyab pa''): The positive concomitance or pervasion of the mark by the predicate (e.g., wherever there is smoke, there is fire, as in a kitchen).#* ''Vyatirekavyāpti'' (T. ''ldog khyab'' or ''ldog pa'i khyab pa''): The negative concomitance or counter-pervasion (e.g., wherever there is no fire, there is no smoke, as in a lake).# Pramāṇa (Indo-Tibetan) — Types Based on the Knower:#* ''Svārthānumāna'' (T. ''rang don rjes dpag''): Inference for oneself—the internal cognitive process by which one arrives at knowledge through reasoning, without requiring formal demonstration.#* ''Parārthānumāna'' (T. ''gzhan don rjes dpag''): Inference for others—the articulation of a logical argument (syllogismiculation of a logical argument (syllogism +
or inferring impermanence from being a pro … or inferring impermanence from being a produced thing).#* ''Anupalabdhihetu'' / ''Anupalabdhiliṅga'' (T. ''mi dmigs pa'i rtags''): An inference based on non-apprehension or absence as the reason, used to establish non-existence (e.g., inferring the absence of a jar in a specific spot because it is not perceived despite all conditions for perception being met).# Pramāṇa (Indo-Tibetan) — Tibetan Developments: In Tibetan epistemology, particularly following ''Chapa Chökyi Sengé'', inference (''rjes dpag'') is classified as one of the seven kinds of cognition (''blo rig bdun''), along with direct perception, subsequent cognition (''bcad shes''), correct assumption (''yid dpyod''), inattentive cognition (''snang la ma nges''), doubt (''the tshom''), and false cognition (''log shes''). Tibetan commentators further classify inference according to the basis of the reason:#* ''Dngos stobs rjes dpag'': Factual inference or inference by the power of the fact—based on actual causal or essential relations.#* ''Grags pa'i rjes dpag'': Inference through popular convention—based on conventional or linguistic agreement.#* ''Yid ches rjes dpag'': Inference through trust or scripture—relying on trustworthy testimony.# Abhidharma (Indo-Tibetan): While the ''pramāṇa'' tradition provides the detailed framework for inference, Abhidharma texts establish the conceptual groundwork by analyzing mental factors involved in cognition. The discriminative awareness (''prajñā''. The discriminative awareness (''prajñā'' +