Anumāna

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Key Term	anumāna
Hover Popup Choices	inference; inferential cognition; logical inference; reasoning; deduction
In Tibetan Script	རྗེས་དཔག་
Wylie Tibetan Transliteration	rjes dpag
Devanagari Sanskrit Script	अनुमान
Romanized Sanskrit	anumāna
Romanized Pali	anumāna
Tibetan Phonetic Rendering	jepak
Chinese Script	比量
Chinese Pinyin	bǐliàng
Japanese Transliteration	hiryō
Korean Script	biryang
English Standard	inference
Alternate Spellings	rjes su dpag pa; rjes dpag tshad ma
Term Type	Noun
Source Language	Sanskrit
Basic Meaning	a form of conceptual cognition that does not apprehend its object directly, but by using logical signs and valid reasons to infer the existence of more subtle phenomena that are not immediately accessible to our sense consciousnesses
Has the Sense of	a conceptual cognition that uses evidence and reasoning to imply or infer the existence of phenomena not directly manifest to us
Simon's Dharma Corner Explanation	Inference (Skt. anumāna; T. rjes dpag) is a way of knowing something indirectly, using logic and reasoning to access rather than direct experience. It is used in the Buddhist tradition to gain insight into deeper levels of reality of self and phenomena. In the Buddhist tradition of logic and epistemology, valid cognition (pramāṇa; T. tshad ma) is required to validate phenomena and to establish their existence. There are principal forms of this valid cognition– direct perception (pratyakṣa; T. mngon sum) and inference, or inferential valid cognition (Skt. anumāna; T. rjes dpag). In contrast to non-conceptual direct perception, inference is a conceptual cognition that uses mental images of phenomena to apprehend things that are hidden from our senses and therefore not directly accessible to us. Inference is particularly used in the Buddhist tradition to establish the existence of slightly hidden phenomena (T. cung zad lkog gyur), using correct logical reasons (liṅga) or signs (hetu). In the classical examples, we use these logical structures to infer simple examples, such as the existence of fire hidden behind a hill using the presence of smoke as evidence. Logical statements with deeper meaning are then used to prove the subtle impermanence of conditioned phenomena with the reason of being produced by causes and conditions; or proving the lack of true existence with the reason of being interdependent. Inference is the conceptual cognition that apprehends these less manifest objects, and is the consciousness that is the product of the reasoning process. The system of Buddhist epistemology using inference was particularly developed and systematized by the Indian masters Dignāga and Dharmakīrti.
NEW: Context Descriptions (Glossary-DefinitionTsadra)	Pramāṇa (Indo-Tibetan): Anumāna (T. rjes dpag or rjes su dpag pa), or inferential cognition, is a cornerstone of Buddhist epistemology, particularly as systematized by Dignāga and Dharmakīrti. It is one of only two accepted pramāṇas (valid cognitions), alongside direct perception (pratyakṣa). This twofold division corresponds to two types of objects: unique particulars (svalakṣaṇa; T. rang mtshan), which are known through direct perception, and universals or generally characterized phenomena (sāmānyalakṣaṇa; T. spyi mtshan), which are understood through inference. Inference is defined as a conceptual, non-erroneous cognition that ascertains a hidden phenomenon (parokṣa; T. lkog gyur) based on a logical mark (liṅga/hetu; T. rtags) possessing three essential characteristics (trairūpya; T. tshul gsum): Pakṣadharmatā (T. phyogs chos): The presence of the mark in the subject (e.g., smoke exists on the mountain pass). Anvayavyāpti (T. rjes khyab or rjes su 'gro ba'i khyab pa): The positive concomitance or pervasion of the mark by the predicate (e.g., wherever there is smoke, there is fire, as in a kitchen). Vyatirekavyāpti (T. ldog khyab or ldog pa'i khyab pa): The negative concomitance or counter-pervasion (e.g., wherever there is no fire, there is no smoke, as in a lake). Pramāṇa (Indo-Tibetan) — Types Based on the Knower: Svārthānumāna (T. rang don rjes dpag): Inference for oneself—the internal cognitive process by which one arrives at knowledge through reasoning, without requiring formal demonstration. Parārthānumāna (T. gzhan don rjes dpag): Inference for others—the articulation of a logical argument (syllogism; T. sbyor ba'i ngag) to generate understanding in another person. Dharmakīrti and his Indo-Tibetan successors prescribed a two-membered form involving a thesis (pratijñā; T. dam bca' ), reason (hetu), and example (dṛṣṭānta; T. dpe). Unlike the five-membered syllogism of the Nyāya school, the Buddhist form omits the explicit statement of the conclusion. Pramāṇa (Indo-Tibetan) — Types Based on the Logical Reason: Kāryahetu / Kāryaliṅga (T. 'bras bu'i rtags): An inference based on an effect as the reason (e.g., inferring fire from smoke, since smoke is the effect of fire). Svabhāvahetu / Svabhāvaliṅga (T. rang bzhin gyi rtags): An inference based on essential nature or identity as the reason (e.g., inferring "tree" from "oak tree" because being an oak is pervaded by being a tree; or inferring impermanence from being a produced thing). Anupalabdhihetu / Anupalabdhiliṅga (T. mi dmigs pa'i rtags): An inference based on non-apprehension or absence as the reason, used to establish non-existence (e.g., inferring the absence of a jar in a specific spot because it is not perceived despite all conditions for perception being met). Pramāṇa (Indo-Tibetan) — Tibetan Developments: In Tibetan epistemology, particularly following Chapa Chökyi Sengé, inference (rjes dpag) is classified as one of the seven kinds of cognition (blo rig bdun), along with direct perception, subsequent cognition (bcad shes), correct assumption (yid dpyod), inattentive cognition (snang la ma nges), doubt (the tshom), and false cognition (log shes). Tibetan commentators further classify inference according to the basis of the reason: Dngos stobs rjes dpag: Factual inference or inference by the power of the fact—based on actual causal or essential relations. Grags pa'i rjes dpag: Inference through popular convention—based on conventional or linguistic agreement. Yid ches rjes dpag: Inference through trust or scripture—relying on trustworthy testimony. Abhidharma (Indo-Tibetan): While the pramāṇa tradition provides the detailed framework for inference, Abhidharma texts establish the conceptual groundwork by analyzing mental factors involved in cognition. The discriminative awareness (prajñā; T. shes rab) that analyzes phenomena provides the basis for inferential reasoning. Inference operates through conceptual cognition (kalpanā; T. rtog pa), which involves the application of mental images and universal concepts to particular objects. The process of analyzing dharmas to move beyond doubt aligns with the function of inference. Mahāyāna (Indo-Tibetan): In Mahāyāna, particularly Madhyamaka, inference is extensively used to deconstruct mistaken views about inherent existence and to establish understanding of emptiness (śūnyatā). The wisdom derived from contemplation (cintāmayī prajñā; T. bsam pa las byung ba'i shes rab) largely relies on inferential reasoning based on teachings and logical arguments before it matures into direct realization through meditation (bhāvanāmayī prajñā). The great Mādhyamika masters like Nāgārjuna and Candrakīrti employed sophisticated logical arguments, a form of parārthānumāna, to guide others towards understanding emptiness. Inferential valid cognition (anumānapramāṇa; T. rjes dpag tshad ma) plays a crucial role in understanding subtle impermanence, emptiness, the karmic process, and other key Buddhist tenets not directly perceivable through ordinary sense faculties. Vajrayāna (Indo-Tibetan): In Vajrayāna, while the pramāṇa framework is maintained for philosophical analysis and debate, the emphasis shifts toward direct experience and yogic perception. Training in valid cognition (tshad ma) remains foundational in monastic education, as it develops the analytical capacity necessary for understanding and realizing the tantric view. The distinction between conceptual inference and non-conceptual direct awareness becomes particularly important in the context of recognizing the nature of mind. Theravāda/Pāli Tradition Context: In the Pāli tradition, while the systematic pramāṇa theory developed by Dignāga and Dharmakīrti is not emphasized, the term anumāna appears in the sense of reasoning or inference. The Pāli texts acknowledge the importance of reasoning (takka, vitakka) as part of the investigation of dhamma, though direct insight (vipassanā) and personal realization are prioritized over mere logical deduction. Indian Philosophical Context: Buddhist anumāna theory developed in dialogue with the Hindu Nyāya school's logic. While Nyāya accepts a five-membered syllogism and additional pramāṇas such as verbal testimony (śabda), comparison (upamāna), and postulation (arthāpatti), the Buddhist pramāṇa tradition accepts only perception and inference as independent sources of valid knowledge, with scripture being validated through inference regarding the reliability of the Buddha as a teacher (pramāṇabhūta).
NEW: Glossary-PopUpBeginnerDefinition	Inference (Skt. anumāna; T. rjes dpag) is a way of knowing something indirectly, using logic and reasoning rather than direct experience. For example, if you see smoke rising from a distant mountain, you can infer that there is a fire there, even if you can't see the fire directly yourself. It's a key way to understand things that are hidden from our senses. It is used in the Buddhist tradition to gain insight into deeper levels of reality of self and phenomena.
NEW: Glossary-PopUpScholarDefinition	Anumāna (T. rjes dpag) is one of the two principal means of valid cognition (pramāṇa; T. tshad ma) in Buddhist epistemology, contrasted with direct perception (pratyakṣa; T. mngon sum). It is a conceptual cognition that ascertains an unperceived or hidden object (e.g., fire on a mountain, impermanence of a sound) through the force of a logical reason or mark (liṅga or hetu; T. rtags) which is invariably connected to it. The etymology of both the Sanskrit anumāna (anu- "after" + māna "measuring/knowing") and the Tibetan rjes dpag ("inferring after") indicates that inference follows perception—one first perceives a sign and then infers what is not directly observed. This connection is established through the three characteristics of a valid reason (trairūpya; T. tshul gsum). Key forms include inference for oneself (svārthānumāna; T. rang don rjes dpag) and inference for others (parārthānumāna; T. gzhan don rjes dpag), which involves a formal syllogistic statement.
NEW: Glossary-DefinitionBodhicittaWiki	Inferential cognition (anumāna; T. rjes dpag) is vital on the bodhisattva's path, particularly for developing the wisdom that understands emptiness (śūnyatā). While direct, non-conceptual realization of emptiness is the ultimate goal, the initial understanding and conviction are often cultivated through inference. By relying on the teachings of the Buddha and the logical reasonings elucidated by masters like Nāgārjuna, a bodhisattva uses inference to analyze phenomena and deconstruct the illusion of inherent existence. This inferential understanding—a form of wisdom arising from contemplation("cintāmayī prajñā")—creates a stable foundation for meditative practice (bhāvanāmayī prajñā), which can then lead to the direct perception of emptiness. Thus, inference is an indispensable tool for sharpening wisdom, overcoming doubts, and progressively realizing the profound nature of reality necessary for attaining Buddhahood for the sake of all beings. It helps in understanding concepts like impermanence, suffering, and selflessness at a deeper level, which fuels the motivation of bodhicitta. The transition from conceptual understanding established through anumāna to non-conceptual wisdom marks the bodhisattva's attainment of the path of seeing (darśanamārga; T. mthong lam), where emptiness is directly realized. Furthermore, parārthānumāna (inference for others) becomes a skillful means (upāya) for teaching and guiding other beings toward liberation.
NEW: Glossary-DefinitionLotsawas	inference; inferential cognition; logical inference; reasoning; deduction
Definitions
Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism	anumāna (T. rjes su dpag pa; C. tuiliang; J. suiryō; K. churyang fēn). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “inference.” In Buddhist logic and epistemology, inference is considered to be one of the two forms of valid knowledge (pramāṇa), along with direct perception (pratyakṣa). Inference allows us to glean knowledge concerning objects that are not directly evident to the senses. In the Buddhist logical traditions, inferences may be drawn from logical signs (hetu, liṅga); e.g., there is a fire on the mountain (sādhya), because there is smoke (sādhana), like a stove (sapakṣa), unlike a lake (vipakṣa).
Tshig mdzod Chen mo	རྟགས་མཐོང་ཞིང་འབྲེལ་བ་ངེས་པའི་རྗེས་སུ་སྒྲུབ་བྱ་དཔོག་པའམ་གཞལ་བྱ་ལྐོག་གྱུར་འཇལ་བ་སྟེ། དུ་བ་དང་ཆུ་སྐྱར་གྱི་རྟགས་ལས་མེ་དང་ཆུ་ཡོད་པར་དཔོག་པ་ལྟ་བུའོ།།